(25-220)
(265-316)
(317-420)
(420-589)
Second Zhou (690–705)
(1912-1949)
(1912-1914)
(1916-1928)
Nationalist government
(1928-1949)
Creation of the People's Republic of China
The Soviet army remained in Manchuria until May. During this time, the Soviet side helped the Chinese communists organize, train and arm new Chinese troops. As a result, when Kuomintang troops began to enter Manchuria in April, they were surprised to find there not scattered guerrilla detachments, but a modern, disciplined army of communists.
The White House also became interested in the situation in Manchuria. The first detachment of the US armed forces, consisting of two marine divisions, landed in China in the Tianjin area on September 30. By the fall, there were already over 100 thousand American troops in China.
The American Expeditionary Forces, mainly Marine Corps units, tried not to interfere in relations between the CCP and the Kuomintang. However, they actively interacted with armed forces the legitimate Chinese government - by Kuomintang troops, primarily in accepting the surrender of Japanese troops in Northern and Central China, as well as in maintaining order and protecting various important objects in Chinese cities.
From the very beginning, the command of the Kuomintang troops made a strategic mistake: despite the successes of the first clashes with the UDA in Manchuria, military operations in Northeast China were not completed, the KMT directed its efforts not at fighting the regular troops of the CPC, but at destroying the partisan movement and guerrilla bases in Central, Eastern and Northern China. Having strengthened with the help of the Soviet side, with the support of the local population, Mao Zedong's troops by the fall reached a strength of 600 thousand people. On November 1, the ODA became known as the 4th Field Army. It was headed by Lin Biao.
At the end of the year, the Chinese People's Liberation Army destroyed the main Kuomintang factions on the continent, victoriously ending the third Chinese civil war.
The victory over the Kuomintang and the CCP's seizure of power were made possible thanks to decisive support from the Soviet Union. On October 1, 1949, the People's Republic of China was proclaimed in Beijing. The next day, the Soviet Union was the first to recognize the PRC and concluded a Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance with it.
First Five Year Plan
Following the Soviet model, the CCP set about creating a planned economy. However, unlike the USSR, China was in no hurry to carry out strict agrarian collectivization and hasty industrialization with Soviet help.
The First Five Year Plan of 1953-57 was not successful in every way, but it demonstrated the benefits of political stability and thus further strengthened Mao Zedong's authority.
Having become closer to the USSR, China accordingly found itself economically isolated by the United States and other NATO countries. First Taiwan Strait Crisis (1954-1955).
In September 1956, the first session of the 8th CPC Congress took place. It was dominated by supporters of the Soviet development model, and its work was significantly influenced by the decisions of the 20th Congress of the CPSU. A new charter of the CPC was adopted, the provision on the leading role of “Mao Zedong Thought” was removed from the charter, and Marxism-Leninism was proclaimed as the ideological basis of the party.
Hundred Flowers Campaign
Inspired by the successes, Mao decided to increase publicity and criticism in the country in order to involve the urban intelligentsia in socialist construction.
Course of three red banners
In May 1958, the second session of the Eighth Congress of the CPC was held behind closed doors, marking the CPC’s refusal to use Soviet experience. It was announced that a transition to the “course of three red banners” (a new “general line” to build socialism in the PRC according to the principle “more, faster, better, more economical”, the “Great Leap Forward” policy, the creation of “people's communes”), designed to ensure accelerated development of the PRC, bring it into the ranks of leading world powers and ensure its leadership in the international communist movement.
The Great Leap Forward replaced the Second Five-Year Plan of 1958-62 proposed by Zhou Enlai.
Under the conditions of the “Great Leap Forward,” the foreign policy of the PRC leadership radicalized. On August 23, 1958, the PLA began shelling coastal islands in the Taiwan Strait, on which a 100,000-strong group of Kuomintang troops was concentrated (see Second Crisis in the Taiwan Strait).
In April 1959, Mao Zedong resigned as Chairman of the People's Republic of China, and Liu Shaoqi was elected to this post.
The successful implementation of the liberalization policy in combination with a strictly pursued policy of birth control (the decline in the birth rate over 20 years amounted to at least 200 million people) made it possible to create a multi-structured economy in which state-owned enterprises provide 48% of industrial output, collective enterprises - 38%, private enterprises, including foreign participation - 13.5%. State trade accounts for over 41% of total retail turnover, collective trade - almost 28% and private trade - 31%. The share of market prices for consumer goods reached 90%, for means of production - 80%, for agricultural products - 85%. The share of types of industrial products whose production is regulated by state directive plans has decreased from 95% in 1978 to 5% currently. The share of goods whose prices are directly controlled by the state in retail trade turnover fell from 95 to 6%. In addition to the goods market, markets for capital, machinery and equipment, labor, and other elements necessary for production began to be created. China's GDP has grown for 20 years since 1985 at an average annual rate of 9.5%. The country has taken 1st place in the world in the production of cement, non-ferrous metals, cotton fabrics, bicycles (over 80 million), motorcycles (21.3 million), televisions (35 million), coal, grain, cotton, rapeseed seeds, meat, eggs, 2nd - chemical fertilizers, 3rd - sugar, cars (7.3 million, incl. 4.6 million cars), 4th - electricity, 5th - crude oil. In terms of GDP, China is in 4th place in the world (when calculated using the parity purchasing rate, it is in 2nd place). It accounts for 5.4% of the world's gross product (2006). The country's gold and foreign exchange reserves exceeded a trillion US dollars in 2006. The trade surplus is $180 billion. True, despite such record-breaking long-term and large-scale economic growth, China’s per capita GDP remains at a relatively low level; per capita GDP, calculated at purchasing power parity, in 2006 amounted to $4,700. At the same time, the average income of a citizen in open cities at the end of 2006 exceeded 10,000 yuan per month. In the Chinese countryside, from 100 to 150 million people cannot find work, and several hundred million more are underemployed. The official urban unemployment rate is 4.2% (2005).
At the beginning of the 21st century, China has turned into a “world factory”, where a number of industries are being transferred from developed countries in Europe, North America and Japan. Rapid economic growth is largely due to low labor costs, poor safety standards and low environmental control. As a result, China has already become the second largest polluter of the global atmosphere and hydrosphere, after the much more powerful US economy, and has also become a “leader” in soil erosion (especially in the northern regions). The increased level of oil imports by China due to the growth of the auto and motorcycle fleet (3.2 million barrels/day in 2005, 2nd place in the world) has led in recent years to an increase in its average world price.
At the same time, the country’s economic and political influence in the world has been constantly increasing in recent years. Thus, in 1997 and 1999, the territories of Hong Kong (Hong Kong) and Macao (Aomen) “leased” from the Celestial Empire were returned to China. The level of the country's defense capability and the technical equipment of the PLA are constantly increasing, which is greatly facilitated by the Russian Federation, which supplies China with the most modern types of weapons.
The liberalization of the PRC economy has not yet been accompanied by a softening of the political regime. Political repression against the opposition continues in the country, especially on a large scale during the “events in Tiananmen Square” in May 1989, and the media, including the Internet, are tightly controlled. At the same time, in recent years, a number of important changes have been made to the charter of the CPC, for example, representatives of business circles are allowed to join the party, and rotation of senior cadres of the Party leadership has been introduced. In domestic policy, all restrictions on the growth of personal wealth have been lifted and the ownership of personal cars has been allowed. At the same time, the country leads the world in the number of executions (more than 7,000 per year). Despite these harsh practices, the level of crime and corruption is constantly increasing.
The policy of liberalization has produced sensationally high results and has moved the Chinese economy to a different qualitative level. At the same time, economic development is uneven across regions, social disparities are accumulating, and insufficient attention is paid to environmental aspects, which already affects not only the territory of China, but also the interests of neighboring countries.
The rapid increase in the role of China makes us talk about a potential Chinese threat to the countries of the world, see Yellow Peril.
Prominent Researchers of China
XX century
- Agnes Smedley, American journalist, analyst, political scientist, specialist in geopolitics and geostrategy; worked in China in the 30s - 40s of the 20th century; advocated the independence of China and its liberation from Japanese invaders.
XXI Century
- Vladimir Myasnikov, born in 1931, Soviet and Russian historian, orientalist, sinologist, specialist in the field of Russian-Chinese relations, foreign policy history, historical biography. Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor. Teacher at the Military Diplomatic Academy in Moscow. Author of about 500 published scientific papers, books, monographs in Russian and English. // 1000 copies - ISBN 978-5-89282-445-3.
Brief information about the country
Date of foundation
Official language
Chinese
Form of government
Socialist republic
Territory
9,596,960 km² (3rd in the world)
Population
1,430,075,000 people (1st in the world)
Timezone
Largest cities
Shanghai, Beijing, Chongqing, Tianjin, Guangzhou
$14.625 trillion (2nd in the world)
Internet domain
Telephone code
Or Zhong Guo, as the Chinese themselves call it, is one of the most amazing and mysterious countries in the world. The birthplace of paper and printing, gunpowder and the compass, silk, porcelain and many other useful inventions and discoveries, it invariably attracts the attention of historians, researchers, and travelers. Located in the southeast of the Asian continent and its outline reminiscent of a huge bird soaring in the sky, modern China is the heir to a great civilization, the chronicle of which goes back about five thousand years.
Video: China
Basic moments
Despite the rich historical past, the rather diverse ethnocultural composition of the population and the presence of national-territorial autonomies, the People's Republic of China is de facto a unitary state with a strict management system and a clearly structured vertical of power, the core of which has been the Communist Party since 1949.
The PRC has a huge territory of 9,596,960 square meters. km, including the island of Taiwan, which is not controlled by the central government, and its surrounding small islands. According to this indicator, China is second only to Russia and Canada. In terms of population – 1,430,075,000 people (2018 data) – it ranks first in the world rankings.
Distant and mysterious China is also called the Celestial Empire. The ancient Chinese considered their country to be the only one in the world protected by heaven, and their rulers were revered as “sons of heaven.” Or perhaps such a poetic name is inspired by the highest mountain system on the planet located here - the Himalayas? It's hard to say for sure. But one thing is certain: every tourist who comes here necessarily becomes a little Chinese, because it is simply impossible not to be imbued with the local culture, the original customs of the ancient people, their culinary traditions and no less vibrant modernity!
Cities of China
All cities in China
Nature
The tranquility and grandeur of Tibet, the majestic Himalayas, the unique landscapes of Gansu province, the Gobi Desert in the north and warm seas in the eastern part of the country it is all China. The local nature seems to be specially created so that the traveler immediately forgets about the everyday hustle and bustle and takes a break from the noise of big cities, gaining bright and unforgettable impressions.
The inaccessibility of many areas, in particular the Tibetan Plateau, has made it possible to preserve the flora and fauna in their original form. In the mountains near the peaks the vegetation is quite sparse, and at their foot there are meadows with lush grass where herds of yaks graze. The population uses them as draft power when plowing small plots of land. Other animals that can survive in such conditions live here: the orongo antelope, the Himalayan bear and the kiang. There are also hare, bobak, red wolf, brown bear and lynx. The great rivers of China and neighboring countries - the Yangtze, Yellow River, Indus, Salween, Brahmaputra, Mekong - originate in the mountains of Tibet. Thanks to the snowy peaks, they fill their waters and provide long-awaited moisture to animals and plants.
The largest monumental structure in Tibet, another autonomous region China, is the Potala Palace. It is located 130 meters above the valley of the city of Lhasa, and its construction began in 1645. Before the Chinese invasion of Tibet in 1959, the palace was the official residence of the Dalai Lama.
If you visit the northeastern province of Guangxi, a cruise on the Li River will be an unforgettable moment of your stay. The landscape here is decorated with amazing hills, steep cliffs, incredible caves, bamboo groves and villages.
At the foot of Mount Nanshan, 40 km west of the city of Sanya (this is the south of Hainan Island), there is the Nanshan Center of Buddhism - the largest in Asia. It was opened in 1997, its area is 50 square meters. m. In addition to restoring the ancient Buddhist temple, the creators of the center laid out an impressively sized landscape park here.
All sights of China
Kitchen
The Chinese attach great importance to food, its usefulness and taste. For them, eating is not just a necessity of life, but a kind of ritual, which has a philosophical meaning. Chefs in China have long been equated with prime ministers. Even the ancient thinker and philosopher of China, Confucius, compared a well-prepared dish with a successful state in which everyone is in his place.
The vast territory of China is divided into provinces. Each of them has its own nature and way of life, therefore gastronomic preferences are different.
In the north of the country, the main ingredient in dishes is noodles. It is fried, boiled, baked.
In the south of the Celestial Empire, not a single dish is complete without rice. It is used to make flat cakes, sprinkled with soy sauce, and even baked bread. Desserts are also prepared from this main national product. The most famous cuisine traditions are Cantonese, Sichuan, Shandong, and Jiangsu cuisine. In fact, there are many more of them. For example, in Tibet, the basis of the entire diet is not rice or noodles, but barley. Dough for noodles or dumplings is made from this cereal. Barley beer from local brewers has a sweet and tangy taste.
The province of Guangzhou, in southern China, is famous for its wide variety of meat dishes. Almost any meat is cooked here, even snakes and snails. Poetic names of unfamiliar dishes most often confuse a traveler inexperienced in Chinese delicacies. Having familiarized yourself with the ingredients of the dish, you can calmly enjoy its taste without worrying about the contents of the plate. For lovers of spicy dishes, the culinary masterpieces of Cantonese cuisine may seem bland.
It is here that light dishes, collectively called dim sum, are popular. They are usually small in size so that they are easy to pick up with chopsticks, and are portions of desserts, fruits, vegetables and seafood. In Chinese, dim sum translates to “order for your heart” or “touch your heart.” Often local restaurants serve only this type of snack.
You can have a good snack in China, since there are a lot of delicious snacks for tea here: for example, jiaozi (similar to dumplings) or wontons made from rice dough (resembling manti). And baozi, reminiscent of pies known to Russians, are steamed and filled with delicious fillings. Rolls are baked from rice and fuju. No other cuisine can boast of such a delicacy, because fuju is a film that forms on soy milk.
For lovers active rest You should immediately go to the city of Sanya, which is located on the island of Hainan. Here everyone can take part in sports rafting on mountain rivers, try their hand at diving or visit the adjacent small islands and go fishing there. Golf tourism has gained incredible popularity here, prompting the creation of two professional golf clubs, each with 18-hole courses.
But the world's largest socialist country is famous for more than just traditional entertainment. There are more than 20 here ski resorts. Each of them usually has 5-6 tracks designed for quick descent, as well as several lifts. The most popular ski center in China is Yabuli. This is where the Winter Olympic Games took place in 2008.
Yabuli Ski Resort
While spending your holidays in China, you can go to world-famous traditional medicine courses on health improvement. Here, thanks to the unique thermal springs, many dermatological, urological and digestive system diseases can be cured. The most popular medical complex in the country is Nantian. It has 30 swimming pools, each of which has water unique in mineral composition and temperature. There are several other health centers in Sanya. They offer acupuncture treatments and therapeutic massage sessions.
Shopping
For many years, China has been ranked first in the ranking of countries producing a wide variety of products. It is in China that you can buy whatever your heart desires: from small souvenirs to jewelry, electronic equipment and an expensive car. Most tourists admit that they go to the Celestial Empire not only to see local attractions, but also to have the shopping experience of their dreams.
iPad, is that you?Almost every major city has a huge shopping center, so big that it would take at least three days to visit each store. As a rule, all shopping centers are open from 10:00 to 21:00 without days off and lunch breaks. The most popular are Bailian Zhonghuan Mall, Grandview Mall and Times Square in Shanghai, Beijing Great Gold Mal in Beijing, South China Mall in Dongguan, Teem Mall and Plaza in, as well as Hong Kong Harbor, where thousands of fashion boutiques, shops, supermarkets and a number of popular entertainment venues.
In addition to clothes and electronics, in China you can buy hand-painted porcelain products, which are very popular among foreigners. Women will be delighted with pearl jewelry, national dresses, fans and umbrellas. For friends and acquaintances, you can bring the famous Chinese tea, magnets and symbols of this country - a fire-breathing dragon, tiger or panda. China has a very developed discount system. Tourists will be pleasantly surprised by low prices, discounts and frequent sales.
Transport
Until recently, China's transport system was not in the best condition, despite the size of the country and its population. The thing is that until the end of the 80s of the last century, China was, in fact, a backward agricultural country.
According to estimates by the State Council of the People's Republic of China, the losses of the country's economy due to the undeveloped transport system reach 1.5% of GDP, so now all the government's efforts are focused on its development.
The most popular mode of transport here is rail. The railway network stretches for 115 thousand kilometers. China has already surpassed Russia in this indicator and is second only to the United States.
The first metro line was launched in 1965. Today, there are subways in 22 cities of the country. The total length of metro lines is about 2.5 thousand kilometers. According to government plans, in the near future the number of cities with their own subways will reach 58.
China has more than 2000 ports. By water transport network The country transports 1.5 trillion tons of cargo and 6.5 trillion passengers.
China's air transport has about 500 airports, and the total number of aircraft reaches 2000.
Connection
Mobile communications in China are new for Russians, since until recently the local information technology market was closed to tourists, but now it is gradually opening up. The number of operators is 3, and it was they who distributed the “spheres of influence” among themselves throughout the country.
The largest mobile operator is China Mobile, which owns 66 percent of the total market share. The remaining two places were distributed as follows: China Unicom (20%), China Telecom (14%). The monopoly position of these operators negatively affects the level of competition: in terms of the cost of using communication services, each representative of the trio offers approximately the same prices, essentially leaving subscribers no choice.
To make calls, tourists have access to cards from any Chinese mobile operator. To purchase a starter package, you must present a foreign passport. The offered tariffs are calculated for a month. The cost starts from 80 yuan and can reach several thousand in the national currency of the People's Republic of China. The best option is a tariff for 100 yuan (approximately 500 rubles). Tariffs begin on the first day of each month.
Safety
In China, tourists can expect the most unexpected troubles and even dangers. Let's look at the most common ones.
When traveling by taxi, there is a possibility of running into unscrupulous drivers and losing money. Such scammers specially attach a handle or antenna to the car with tape, which naturally falls off even with a light touch. First of all, inexperienced tourists fall for this “bait” and are billed for the alleged breakdown.
In general, the Celestial Empire is famous for its low crime rate and the friendly attitude of the police towards guests. However, in any city you can stumble upon petty thieves who can “steal” a wallet or documents in an instant, so when you are in the thick of people, you need to keep your eyes open.
Be especially careful on the roads. If in large cities the Traffic Rules still mean something, then in the provinces many people drive at their own discretion (especially drivers of bicycles and scooters), which is why you can end up under the wheels of a car.
Chinese cuisine is not entirely familiar to the Russian stomach. By eating too much or eating something wrong, you can ruin your entire vacation. You should avoid questionable eateries and absolutely exotic food like scorpions, grasshoppers or cockroaches. Very spicy dishes flavored with a lot of seasonings can also pose a danger.
In some provinces of China, an unfavorable epidemiological situation remains for a number of infectious diseases, for example, malaria or clonorchiasis. You can find out about the situation in a particular region in advance.
Hotels and accommodation
Today there are more than 300 thousand hotels in China. A significant part of them are located in the center of large tourist cities. Hotels with a high level of service are also found in the provinces, which allows us to say: in this country you can easily find a place for temporary accommodation, as they say, for every taste and budget.
For lovers of a comfortable stay with all amenities, hotels such as Mandarin Oriental Pudong, Shanghai New Development Sentosa Hotel and Shanghai Acme Sunhall Service Apartment, located in the center of Shanghai, are suitable.
High-quality service, delicious breakfasts and stylish rooms will make your stay in China even more enjoyable and unforgettable. The cost of living in 4-5* hotels ranges from 300 to 700 yuan per day, in 2-3* hotels - from 100 to 350 yuan. For those traveling to China for more long term, rented apartments are suitable, the cost of which ranges from 600 to 1300 yuan.
In China, as in many other countries, staying in hostels, which are relatively cheap, has become popular among tourists. The cost of a double room in a hostel is about 100 yuan. For those traveling in a group, there are rooms for 6-10 people, the cost of which ranges from 30 to 70 CNY per person.
Staying in a hostel is really much more profitable than staying in a hotel. The conditions are no worse: free breakfast, clean rooms, Wi-Fi. The money saved on accommodation can be spent on souvenirs and gifts.
How to get there
Every day, two Aeroflot flights are carried out from Moscow to Beijing, and one flight is made by the Chinese airline Air China. You will be in the air for about eight hours.
Aeroflot planes fly daily, and China Eastern Airlines planes fly several times a week. A direct flight will take about 10 hours.
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After World War II, a new balance of political forces was created in China, and the country was drawn into a civil war. On the one side was the patriotic democratic front, led by the CPC, which, in addition to workers and peasants, also included as allies the intelligentsia, the urban petty bourgeoisie and the national bourgeoisie. This front set itself the tasks of overthrowing the Kuomintang regime, liberating the country from the oppression of foreign capital and building a free, independent and democratic China. The other camp, led by the top of the bourgeois landowner Kuomintang party, adhered to the course of strengthening the anti-democratic regime in China.
The United States hoped to use post-war China (while providing it with military-political and material support) as the main base of its dominance in the Far East, a springboard against the Soviet Union and the national liberation movement in the countries of Southeast Asia. Under the pretext of “ensuring the surrender of the Japanese” and their subsequent repatriation, the United States, after the surrender of Japan, kept 113 thousand soldiers, sailors and marines in China (as of December 1945). The Americans trained 39 Kuomintang divisions and armed them, supplying the government with military equipment. By October 1948, the number of Kuomintang divisions armed and trained by Americans reached 106. Relying on the support of the United States and having an army of 4 million 300 thousand people, the Kuomintang army launched a civil war in China.
As a result of the new US-China assistance agreements of October 27, 1947 and the naval agreement of December 8, 1947, China received new loans, and the United States received the right to build military-strategic facilities on its territory. The Kuomintang government also committed itself to supporting the anti-Soviet policies of the United States. However, in 1949, the People's Liberation Army of China disorganized the front and rear of the Kuomintang troops. The failure of the US plans caused a radical change in the political situation in China in favor of the democratic struggle front led by the CCP.
On October 1, 1949, the creation was proclaimed Central People's Government, and on the same day in Tiananmen Square in Beijing, its chairman Mao Zedong solemnly announced the creation of a new state - People's Republic of China(PRC). Chiang Kai-shek and his supporters moved to the island of Taiwan, where the Republic of China remained. The United States continued to recognize him as the country's legitimate ruler.
The Soviet Union was the first to recognize the new Chinese regime, and already on October 2, 1949, diplomatic relations were established between the USSR and the PRC. On February 14, 1950, a Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance was signed between the USSR and the PRC2.
The PRC began its independent state existence as a bankrupt country, but since 1950 the time has come for greater confidence in the future. The Korean War united the people, by 1953 inflation was stopped, the economy reached pre-war levels, land was redistributed, and the First Five-Year Plan began to be implemented. The most tragic consequence of the first years of party leadership was "liberalization of Tibet" in 1950, when Beijing undertook the forced eviction of Tibetan spiritual leaders and carried out genocide of the most valuable spiritual culture.
In 1953–1956 Socialist transformations took place in agriculture and industry, and the dominant position of public ownership of the means of production was established.
In 1954, the first Constitution of the People's Republic of China was adopted, and Mao Zedong elected Chairman of the CPC Central Committee. According to the Constitution, China became a unitary state with limited autonomy for the national borderlands. While a number of political parties remained, power belonged entirely to the Communist Party of China, led by Mao Zedong.
In Eastern Europe in the 1950s. There was a crisis of totalitarian socialism, but there was no crisis in China. Moreover, the success of the first five-year plan allowed Mao Zedong to conclude that it was possible to set even more far-reaching goals. In 1958, the Central Committee of the CPC, on his initiative, approved a new “general line”, according to which it was decided to accelerate economic development and carry out a “great leap” to quickly build a communist society. The main means of building a bright future, according to Mao Zedong, should have been communist, that is, free labor under the slogan “Three years of hard work - ten thousand years of happiness.”
Instead of small cooperatives, "people's communes", uniting on average 20 thousand peasants, in which everything was socialized, including household plots, and an equalizing principle of distribution was introduced. The life of the peasants was strictly regulated: they went to work in formation, they all ate together in the canteen.
In industry, it was decided to accelerate industrialization through unpaid labor through the construction of small enterprises with semi-handicraft technology, when metal smelting furnaces were built in farmsteads.
However, the Great Leap Forward failed. Agricultural production fell, and famine began in several areas of China. Industrial production also decreased. Instead of a leap forward, the country received an economic crisis. Already in 1959, Mao Zedong heard criticism addressed to him. A real opposition arose in the country and the party, which forced Mao to begin an open struggle with his opponents.
Since the opposition took deep roots in the party and state apparatus, he made the army and youth the main weapon in the fight against it, which in 1965 he called for revolutionary violence, the destruction of everything and everyone, in order to create an educated communist society in China, “liberated from the remnants of the old society.” state.
From May 1966 to October 1976, China developed "cultural revolution", undertaken to divert people's attention from economic failures and political struggle at the top. This revolution, led by Mao Zedong himself and his associates, later nicknamed the “Gang of Four,” became the hardest blow for the country since the founding of the PRC.
Persecution of the intelligentsia began; universities were closed, scientists, engineers, doctors, teachers were killed right on the streets; temples were desecrated; everything that reminded us of China's capitalist past was destroyed; cultural figures were sent “for re-education” to villages and remote areas.
This was accompanied by the strengthening of the influence of Mao Zedong, which was instilled through the dissemination of a collection of his quotes, called “ Little red book", physical elimination of opponents and introduction of security " red detachments" The “Red Guards” (Red Guards) and “rebels” (Zaofani), led directly by Mao Zedong and his closest associates, smashed party committees and ministries, seized enterprises and universities. All this was called " the great proletarian cultural revolution».
The policies pursued during the Cultural Revolution surpassed those of the first emperor of China both in cruelty and in the massive scale of repressive measures. One of Mao Zedong’s statements on this matter has been preserved: “Who was the first emperor of the Qin dynasty? He destroyed 460 followers of Confucius, while we repressed 46 thousand intellectuals. There are people who call us dictators, saying that the Communist Party is a “modern Qin Shi Huang.” This is a fact, we fully recognize it.”
The “Cultural Revolution” gave rise to unimaginable chaos and mass violence, as a result of which at the end of 1967, by order of Mao, the army took control of the country. As a result, the Minister of Defense Lin Biao in fact, he became the second person in leadership, which Mao saw as a danger for himself. In 1971, he achieved the removal of Lin Biao (the marshal died in a plane crash over the territory
Mongolia, probably trying to escape from China). To balance the increased influence of the army, Mao began to restore party and state bodies and brought back many disgraced party workers. But his course was increasingly becoming obsolete. The denouement came after the death of Mao Zedong in September 1976 (the leader’s body was placed in a huge mausoleum in the center of Beijing).
A split has emerged in Beijing's politics between moderate reformers. Zhou Enlai And Deng Xiaoping- radicals and Maoists under the leadership of Jiang Qing, the wife of the former leader. The radicals rose to power after the death of Zhou Enlai in 1976. Hua Guofeng, elected by Mao's follower, was appointed prime minister.
This was followed by a high-profile political trial, in which the Gang of Four, led by Jiang Qing2 (besides Qing, took part in the conspiracy Wang Hong-wen, Zhang Cunqiao And Yao Wenyuan) and their supporters were blamed for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution and the preparation of a conspiracy to seize power. Jiang Qing was the only one of the defendants who not only did not admit her guilt, but also tried to make counter-accusations.
Public outrage over the policies of Jiang Qing and her clique broke out and was expressed in mass protests in Tiananmen Square, which were brutally suppressed. After that Deng Xiaoping was forced to hide, since he was declared the initiator of these “anti-revolutionary” protests. He returned to active political life in 1977, forming the six-member Opposition Committee within the CCP.
Since the end of 1959, relations between the PRC and the USSR began to deteriorate. Since the second half of 1960, provocations by the Chinese authorities on the Sino-Soviet border have become more frequent. Anti-Soviet indoctrination began against Soviet specialists working in the country at the request of the PRC. The Soviet government was forced to recall most specialists from the PRC. Later, in March 1969, the Maoists provoked open armed attacks on Soviet territory.
In February - March 1970, China took military action against Vietnam, which intensified the political crisis and intensified the struggle within the leadership of the PRC. In April of the same year, the government denounced the Soviet-Chinese treaty concluded in 1952. The people's deep dissatisfaction with the policies of the PRC leadership grew.
In 1978–1979 Deng Xiaoping announced a policy of reform and opening up. The construction of socialism with Chinese characteristics began. Reforms in China began in the countryside and gradually spread to the cities. Foreign investment was attracted to the country, special economic zones were created, various technologies were borrowed in every possible way, advanced equipment was imported, and qualified personnel were attracted.
Since the end of 1978, according to the results of the Third Plenum of the 11th CPC Central Committee, the Chinese government switched to a policy of “reform and opening up.” In 1978, a system of production responsibility was introduced in rural areas, in which payment was made based on the volume of production produced under the contract. In 1984, the “center of gravity” of reforms was shifted from rural areas to cities. In 1992, China set a course towards creating a “socialist market economy system”.
An important milestone was 1989, when a student demonstration took place in Tiananmen Square, the participants of which demanded urgent democratic changes in China. The demonstrators were dispersed with the help of armored vehicles, resulting in the death of more than 2 thousand people
Deng Xiaoping's reforms were continued by his successors - Jiang Zemin(since 1993) and Hu Jintao, who in March 2003 at the first session of the 10th National People's Congress was elected Chairman of the People's Republic of China. During 2002–2005 Hu Jintao concentrated in his hands the highest party, state and military posts in the country (General Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, Chairman of the People's Republic of China and Commander-in-Chief of the PLA).
In October 2003, China identified further goals and objectives for improving the socialist market economy system, formulated as follows: “according to the requirements of unified planning for urban and rural development, regional development, socio-economic development, harmonious development of man and nature, internal development and external openness, identify to a greater extent the main role of the market in the distribution of resources, strengthen the sustainability and competitiveness of enterprises, improve the processes of government regulation at the macro level and functions
government in the field of social management and public services, creating a solid guarantee for the comprehensive development of a prosperous society.”
The main tasks are to:
Improve the existing economic system, in parallel developing all sectors and institutions of the economy;
Create the prerequisites for a gradual departure from the usual two-basic
economics of town and village;
Coordinate the development of regional economies;
Contribute to the strengthening of the modern single market system;
Improve the macro regulation system, the administrative management system, the economic legal system, the employment system, the income distribution and social insurance system;
Create the preconditions for long-term socio-economic development.
The Chinese leadership reacted negatively to " color revolutions", which began in the post-Soviet space in 2004-2005, and, fearing that the epidemic of social riots could spread to China after " tulip revolution» in March 2005 in Kyrgyzstan, began large-scale actions to tighten controls and limit foreign influence in the country.
In October 2005, a campaign began to establish state control over the activities of the largest cellular operators. Mass purges were carried out among the party and government leadership of Guangdong province, accused of widespread corruption.
The Plenum of the CPC Central Committee in October 2005 adopted the 11th Five-Year Plan, “with its strategic goal of building a harmonious society in China.”
On March 5, 2006, at the next session of the NPC, Prime Minister Wen Jiabao, who delivered a keynote speech, proposed reducing the rate of economic growth of the country and using the freed-up funds to improve the lives of peasants and increase the military budget.
The government slowed China's GDP growth rate to 7.5% per year versus 10% in 2005. The freed up funds were used to reduce the gap between the living standards of the urban population and peasants (about 900 million, or almost 75% of the population). In order to prevent a repetition of “color revolutions” in China, in 2006 about 340 billion yuan (about 42 billion dollars) were spent on the development of the agricultural sector. Spending on the army has also increased. The official military budget in 2006 increased by 14.7% to 284 billion yuan ($35.5 billion).
Many people do not even suspect that there is now not one Chinese Republic in the world, but two, only one of them has the prefix “people’s”. But that is not all. In the twentieth century, another Chinese republic existed for a short time, but this time it was “Soviet”. Let's try to figure out which of them is which.
China
This powerful state is widely known in the world under the more familiar name “China”. It was founded on October 1, 1949. The capital of this country is located in Beijing. is a socialist state. Today its chairman is Xi Jinping. Rules the country This country is a permanent member. And every day its weight in world politics and economics is growing rapidly.
The government of the People's Republic of China has always cared about the defense capability of its country. Today, China has the largest army in the world. At the same time, it also has a large arsenal of nuclear weapons. The largest are Beijing, Chongqing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Tianjin. Despite the fact that this republic is home to a huge number of people speaking different dialects, they have one official language - Chinese.
Geographical location and general information about the PRC
The People's Republic of China is located in East Asia. Its coordinates are 32°48′00″ north latitude and 103°05′00″ east longitude. This state ranks third in the world in terms of area. It occupies an area of almost 9.6 million square meters. km. But in terms of population, no one can compete with the PRC. According to 2013 estimates, 1366.5 million people lived in this country.
China is washed by the waters of the Pacific Ocean (East China, Yellow, South China). Its neighbors are Russia, North Korea, Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Pakistan, Afghanistan, India, Bhutan, Nepal, Myanmar, Vietnam, Laos. The coast of China starts from the border with North Korea and stretches to Vietnam. It has a length of 14.5 thousand km. The time zone of the People's Republic of China corresponds to +8. The country's telephone code is +86.
Economy of the People's Republic of China
The People's Republic of China is one of the leaders of the world economy. Thus, at the end of 2013, its GDP amounted to 7,318 trillion US dollars, which in terms of the country’s population is 6,569 dollars. The gross product (PPP) amounted to 12,383 trillion US dollars. In per capita terms, it is $9,828. In December 2014, the Chinese economy became the first in the world in terms of this indicator.
In the People's Republic of China, the national currency is the yuan (CNY). It corresponds to 156. The economy of the People's Republic of China is diversified. At the same time, China is a generally recognized world leader in the production of many types of industrial products, such as cars and equipment. It exports a huge amount of consumer goods to almost all countries, which is why it is often called the “factory of the world.” China is the owner of the largest gold and foreign exchange reserves.
Population of the People's Republic of China
According to the Human Development Index (HDI) in 2014, China ranked 91st among countries in the world. It was 0.719, which is a very high result. Ethnohoronym (the name of the inhabitants of a certain area) sounds like “Chinese”, “Chinese”, “Chinese”.
Dozens of different peoples live on the territory of the PRC (56 are officially recognized). They all differ in their customs, traditions, national costumes, and cuisine. Many of them have their own language. All these small peoples in total they make up only 7% of the population of this state. The bulk of those living in the PRC are Chinese who call themselves “Han”.
Despite the fact that the country has had strict birth control since 1979, the annual natural population increase continues to grow steadily. The average life expectancy of Chinese people is 71 years. Recently, the share of urban and rural residents has become almost equal, which indicates the high rate of urbanization of the country. The population of the People's Republic of China professes the following main religions - Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism.
General history of the formation of the PRC
China is one of the most ancient states on Earth. Some scientists are sure that the civilization of this state dates back about 5 thousand years. Available written sources confirm that on the territory of the People's Republic of China already 3.5 thousand years ago there were administrative entities with a developed management system. Each successive dynasty of rulers worked to improve it. The economy of this country has always been based on developed agriculture.
The introduction of Confucianism as a state ideology and a unified writing system played a major role in strengthening Chinese civilization. This happened in the 2nd-1st centuries BC. For hundreds of years, various kingdoms and provinces located in this territory either united or disintegrated. At the same time, the local population suffered from constant raids by nomads. It was built to protect against them. Over thousands of years, this powerful civilization developed, fought, and assimilated with the surrounding Asian peoples. Modern China is the result of centuries-old political and cultural processes.
For thousands of years, this state was ruled by emperors of different dynasties. The Republic of China, called Zhonghua mingguo, existed from 1911 to 1949.
On February 12, 1912, the last emperor, Pu Yi, signed an abdication of the throne. In this state, a republican form of government was de jure introduced, but in fact, from 1911 to 1949, the period of “time of troubles” continued. At the same time, China was breaking up into different state formations, emerging on the basis of provincial army units. Only in 1949 did the army of the Communist Party of China (CCP) become the winner in the civil war taking place on its territory. This was largely facilitated by the support of the Soviet Union. The CCP defeated the conservative ROC party called the Kuomintang. The rulers of the latter fled to Taiwan. There they became the founders of such a state as the Republic of China.
Proclamation of the Republic
In September 1949, the People's Consultative Council of China began to work on the territory of modern China. It was he who proclaimed the formation of the People's Republic. At this time, the Central People's Government Council (CPGC) was elected, and Mao Zedong became its chairman. In 1954, the PRC adopted a Constitution that renamed the CNPC into the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress.
In the period from 1949 to 1956, the USSR provided all possible assistance to this state in creating basic industries. Nationalization and collectivization were carried out on the territory of the republic. Socialist construction began to develop at a tremendous pace. In 1956, a new course of development was proclaimed in the country, thanks to which Mao Zedong’s ideas regarding the policies of “communization” and the “Great Leap Forward” began to be implemented. From 1966 to 1976, a “cultural revolution” was proclaimed in China, which led to an intensification of class struggle. Walking along a “special” path of development, the state and society denied commodity-money relations, banned non-state forms of ownership, froze foreign economic relations and organized public courts.
The beginning of the “economic miracle”
He who came to power condemned the policies of his predecessor and in 1977 launched a new campaign called the “Beijing Spring.” In 1978, at the plenum of the Central Industrial Committee, a course towards a socialist market economy was proclaimed. She had specific features. It was supposed to combine the planning-distribution and market systems with a significant attraction of foreign investment. Chinese enterprises have gained more independence in their economic activities. The public sector in the economy was significantly reduced, and free economic zones were opened. Great attention was paid to overcoming poverty, as well as scientific and technological progress.
By the end of the 80s of the twentieth century, the population of the People's Republic of China was fully provided with food. Every year, GDP and industrial production increased steadily. Deng Xiaoping's reforms were successfully implemented by his subsequent successors:
- since 1993 - Jiang Zemin;
- since 2002 - Hu Jintao;
- since 2012 - Xi Jinping.
Political system of the People's Republic of China
Throughout history, this country has adopted 4 Constitutions (1954, 1975, 1978, 1982). According to the last of them, China is a socialist state under the democratic dictatorship of the people. Its highest body of power is the unicameral one. It consists of a huge number of deputies (2979), who are elected for 5 years by regional elections. The NPC convenes annually. Only members of the CPC and 8 “democratic” parties that are part of the CPPCC (Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference) are allowed to participate in the elections. The highest executive body is the State Council, or (as it is often called) the Central People's Government. Its composition includes: the prime minister with his deputies, ministers, the auditor general, ordinary members, and the executive secretary. The highest court is the Supreme People's Court. Local authorities - assemblies of people's representatives and executive-administrative (people's) governments - play a huge role in the development of the country.
Today, special administrative regions have their own legislative bodies, namely Hong Kong and Macau. The head of the People's Republic of China, Xi Jinping, does not end friendly relations with the successor of the USSR - the Russian Federation. Every year, friendship between countries and mutually beneficial cooperation are only gaining momentum. The Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the Russian Federation pays great attention to further strengthening the relationship between our countries.
Administrative division
Since China is a huge state in terms of size and population, it has a very complex administrative division. The PRC exercises control over 22 provinces, and the government considers Taiwan to be the 23rd administrative unit. This state also includes 5 autonomous regions, 4 municipalities (cities of central subordination), 2 special territorial units. Collectively they are called “mainland China”. Separate administrative units are: Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan.
In fact, in China there are the following levels of local government:
- provincial (23 provinces, 4 central cities, 5 autonomous and 2 special regions);
- district (15 prefectures, 3 aimags, 286 urban and 30 autonomous districts);
- district (districts: 1455 simple, 370 urban, 117 autonomous; 857 simple and 4 special districts; 49 simple and 3 autonomous khoshuns);
- volost (13,587 ordinary and 1,085 national volosts, 19,683 villages, 106 simple and 1 national soum, 2 district subordination districts and 7,194 street committees);
- rural (urban neighborhoods, local communities, villages).
Hong Kong is one of the Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, which came under its jurisdiction in 1997, and is home to more than 7 million people. Macau is an autonomous territory (a former colony of Portugal), home to more than 0.5 million people.
Now we need to deal with the states located in this territory. What is the Republic of China? And this is none other than Taiwan, which the Chinese government considers the 23rd province of its country. This island in the Pacific Ocean is located 150 km from the eastern coast of mainland China. Between them is the Taiwan Strait. The island's territory is 36 thousand square meters. km.
The independence of this state was proclaimed on October 10, 1911, but it still has partial diplomatic recognition. The official language of Taiwan is Chinese. Its capital is Taipei. This republic is a democracy with a semi-presidential government system and universal suffrage. Today, Taiwan is one of the most developed countries in this region. He is one of the so-called “four Asian tigers”. The president of this mixed republic is Ma Ying-jeou.
The flag of the Republic of China is a red flag, symbolizing the Earth, with a blue rectangle in the upper left corner, which represents the Sky. It depicts the White Sun. The flag of the Republic of China first appeared back in 1928 in the Kuomintang party.
Taiwan has a population of about 23.3 million people. At the same time, GDP per capita in 2013 amounted to 39,767 US dollars, which is 11 times more than this figure in China. Taiwan's technology industry plays an important role in the global economy. Moreover, its importance only increases every year. The economy of the Republic of China has been developing successfully over the past decades thanks to the use of the latest technologies and excellent education of the population. The currency of this country is the Taiwan dollar.
Education in the Republic of China has developed over many decades in such a way that it always takes into account the changing demands of a growing economy. Currently, the period of compulsory basic education is 9 years. Recently, the Taiwanese authorities want to increase this period to 12 years. The entire educational system is largely biased towards the study of technical sciences. As a result of training, graduates have one of the highest levels of preparation in mathematics and natural sciences.
Many people have long forgotten about the era of socialism-communism. Few people know that there was such a state as the Chinese Soviet Republic. It didn't last long. This small state was created in 1931 under the leadership of the Communist Party in south central China (Jiangxi). In 1937 it was transformed into a Special District.
The Chinese Soviet Republic had its own flag, Provisional Government, Constitution, laws, banknotes and other state attributes. The Council of People's Commissars of this republic was headed by none other than Mao Zedong, who later became the long-term leader of the People's Republic of China. The Central Army Group became the military support of this country. It included the troops of Mao Zedong and Zhu De. In 1931-1932 There was a reorganization of the Red Army.
The main geographical features of the Chinese Soviet Republic were: mountainous position, remoteness, lack of communications, which contributed to its protection from external enemies. It was inhabited by about 5 million people.
The People's Republic of China (PRC) began its existence in October 1945.
In August-September 1945, the defeat of Japan ended World War II and liberated the territories of the eastern countries from Japanese troops. In China, by this time, the civil war was in full swing.
The Soviet army liberated Manchuria, by that time, most of it had been defeated by the Japanese, and scattered Chinese partisan detachments were operating there. The Soviet Red Army was in Manchuria until May 46th. During this time, she contributed to the formation and training of Chinese troops. By November 1945, 100 thousand soldiers of the 8th and 4th armies of the CPC were transferred to northeast China. From them, partisan detachments and local residents, the UDA (United Democratic Army) was formed.
As a result, when the Kuomintang troops entered Manchuria in April 1946, they expected to meet only the weak, scattered partisan detachments that were waiting, but stumbled upon the modern trained army of the CCP.
The complication of the situation in northeast China also interested Americans who sympathized with the Kuomintang. Back in September 1945, the first US troops landed in the Tianjin area. By the fall of that year, the number of US military personnel increased to 100 thousand.
In general, they tried not to interfere in relations between the CCP and the Kuomintang. But they actively collaborated with the latter during the surrender of Japan and maintaining order in the strategically important sites China.
From the very beginning of the civil war, the Kuomintang command made an important strategic mistake: it did not appreciate the danger posed by the UDA and was engaged in the destruction of partisan bases.
With the help of Soviet support, Mao Zedong's troops grew in number and strength. By 1948, the ODA began to number 600 thousand people. Now it became known as the 4th Field Army. Lin Biao was placed at the head of the fourth field.
In November 1948, his army took active action against the Kuomintang. In a short time, the communists defeated 52 divisions of Chiang Kai-shek, and 26 Chinese divisions, trained by American military instructors, went over to the side of the CPC. On January 15, Tianjin was taken, and on January 22, Beijing. In the spring of 1949, all of China north of the Yangtze was liberated by the CPC from the Kuomintang. By the end of the civil war, the people's army had grown to four million people and became the largest in Asia.
On April 24, 1949, Chinese communist troops entered the capital of Kuomintang China, Nanjing. The Kuomintang government had to flee to the south of the country, and then to the island of Taiwan.
On October 1, 1949, the People's Republic of China was proclaimed in Beijing. The Soviet Union was the first to recognize the newborn People's Republic.
The first years of the PRC - the first five-year plan
The CCP decided to follow the Soviet model and create a planned economy in China. But at the same time, the Chinese took into account the shortcomings of the Soviet economy. The Chinese government did not hastily subject the country to industrialization and strict agrarian collectivization. And although the first five-year plan of 1953-57 was not entirely successful, it strengthened the authority of Mao Zedong. However, having become closer to the USSR, China received not only advantages, but also isolation from the United States and NATO countries
